Legal framework on freedom of religion and actual application
In 1997, four years after its independence, Eritrea’s National Assembly approved the country’s constitution. Article 19(1) states: “Every person shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and belief.” Article 19(4) adds: “Every person shall have the freedom to practice any religion and to manifest such practice.”[1]
However, the constitution has never been implemented, and the authorities have always governed by decree. In 2022, the government issued a proclamation recognising only four religious communities: the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Eritrea, the Catholic Church and Sunni Islam.[2] All other religions are banned and considered illegal.[3] Even the recognised religions may operate only under restrictions.[4]
Although Eritrea formally separates religion and State, the ruling People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) exercises strict control over all recognised religious communities. The government regulates Christian Churches and the Muslim community, appoints the overall leaders of both the Muslim community and the Orthodox Church, and controls the salaries and transport — including fuel allocations — of Orthodox leaders, as well as their activities and finances. In contrast, the Catholic and Lutheran Churches retain some autonomy. At the same time, stringent restrictions are imposed on Christian minorities such as Pentecostals and Jehovah’s Witnesses, and on Muslims labelled “radical,” notably Wahhabis. While leaders of Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran and Sunni Muslim communities operate under State supervision, the regime favours Orthodox Christians of Tigrinya ethnicity and shows less sympathy toward Muslims, who are often seen as critical of the government.[5]
Religious leaders and religious media are not permitted to comment on political matters. To assure compliance, the Office of Religious Affairs reminds Church leaders annually of this prohibition, contained in decree No.73 of 1995 on religious organisations.[6] The decree also stipulates that if Churches wish to engage in social work, they must support the efforts of the Eritrean government and not act as agents or foreign governments. They must also allow the authorities to scrutinise any funding received from abroad.[7]
The registration procedure for non-recognised religious groups is so complex that no new groups have been approved since the 2002 proclamation. The Bahá’ís, by applying every year since 1959, have obtained de facto recognition.[8] Failure to register leaves groups vulnerable to harassment by the authorities.
Eritrea’s 2015 Penal Code contains provisions on blasphemy — such as “Defamation of or Interference with Religious and Ethnic Groups” (Article 195) and “Disturbance of Religious or Ethnic Feelings” (Article 196) — as well as on “unlawful assembly,” all of which severely restrict religious freedom. Article 195 and related clauses criminalise the intentional and public disparagement of ceremonies or rites of any lawful religious group, or the profanation of places, images or objects used in such ceremonies, with penalties of up to one year of imprisonment. The Code also punishes unlawful disruption of, or attempts to obstruct, religious services or assemblies with similar prison terms.[9]
Under Proclamation No. 82/1995, Eritrea mandates national service for all citizens aged 18 to 50. Article 6 requires compulsory participation, while Article 8 stipulates six months of military training followed by twelve months of active military or civil service. Article 18 empowers the Ministry of Defence to extend service beyond 18 months as deemed necessary. In practice, this provision has resulted in indefinite conscription, with many serving for years without discharge, drawing international condemnation for what amounts to forced labour.[10]
The situation has been described by the UN Human Rights Council and Human Rights Watch as akin to “slavery-like” forced labour.[11] Officially set at 18 months, service often extends for years or even decades, with averages ranging from six to twelve years or more. Despite the November 2022 Cessation of Hostilities Agreement between Ethiopia and Tigrayan forces, Eritrea is not a party to the agreement and Eritrean troops remained active in Tigray. From mid-2022 through early 2023, Eritrean authorities launched a nationwide conscription campaign targeting alleged draft evaders — including women and children. Those who refuse on political, religious or conscientious grounds face arbitrary arrest, torture, forced eviction and imprisonment.[12]
Incidents and developments
Since gaining independence in 1993, Eritrea has been ruled with an iron grip by President Isaias Afwerki and his sole legal party, the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). Freedom House describes Eritrea as a militarised authoritarian state where no national elections have been held, independent civil society is banned, and arbitrary detention is widespread.[13] Civil and political rights — including freedom of expression, religion and assembly — are repressed.[14]
Reports confirm that individuals in Eritrea have been arrested for attending unauthorised religious gatherings, often without formal charges or official explanation. Detainees are frequently held in harsh conditions for prolonged periods, without access to legal processes, medical care or external communication. Torture and forced labour are widely reported.[15]
Accused of severe violations of freedom of religion or belief (FoRB), the Eritrean government detains individuals in a vast network of facilities, including police stations, military and civilian prisons, and undisclosed sites. Prisoners face severe physical and sexual abuse, denial of medical treatment, and pressure to renounce their faith. Religious practices such as prayer, singing, preaching and possession of religious texts are banned. Many detention centres are overcrowded and inhumane, ranging from dilapidated buildings and metal shipping containers to underground cells. The Mai Serwa detention centre near Asmara, notorious for extreme overcrowding and isolation, epitomises Eritrea’s systemic abuses against religious prisoners.[16]
In February 2023, Orthodox monk Yeneta Ezra — a supporter of Bishop Abune Antonios who died in 2022 after being held under house arrest for over 15 years for opposing state interference in Church affairs — was found dead under unclear circumstances. [17]
In 2023, the Eritrean government escalated its campaign against Church-managed social services, seizing 21 healthcare centers operated by religious organizations —primarily the Catholic Church. These facilities, located in underserved rural and semi-urban areas, had long provided essential services such as maternity care, education, and support for orphans. The new seizures added to eight previously confiscated centers, bringing the total to 29.[18] Eritrean Catholics in London held a vigil in November 2024 to protest the closures and express support for the Church’s humanitarian mission.[19]
From January to April 2023, 177 members of unregistered Christian groups were detained while worshipping or recording music in private homes.[20]
In March 2023, nine Christians, including Pastor Abenet Yemane, were released after nearly nine years in prison.[21]
On 9 April 2023, Pentecostal pastor Tesfay Seyoum, founder of the Meserete Kristos Church, suffered a brain haemorrhage and died after a decade of detention. Authorities reportedly prevented his family from burying him in their chosen location, leaving his body unburied for several days.[22]
In April 2023, 95 young people from the Mahalians praise group were arrested after gathering in the capital city of Asmara to record a praise video. In September 2023, most were released, but fifteen members in their early 20s were still detained in February 2025. Following their arrests, they were told to sign statements promising not to attend Christian meetings — many refused, despite torture.[23]
In July 2023, 300 Muslim students were released after being held since 2017 for protesting school policies.[24]
In January 2024, The Washington Post published a detailed exposé based on interviews with 42 former Eritrean prisoners, documenting inhumane conditions within the country’s detention network. The report described overcrowded underground cells, metal containers and dungeons where inmates were forced to sleep in shifts. Many detainees reported being held without charges, subjected to torture and stress positions, and denied medical care. Refusal of mandatory conscription frequently resulted in imprisonment. Former prisoners also reported severe beatings, forced confessions under duress, and suffocation deaths.[25]
On 20 January 2024, 30 Christian adults and several children were arrested after gathering to celebrate the birth of a Christian’s firstborn child.[26]
In May 2024, Rev. Ghirmay Araya died after more than three years in a maximum-security prison.[27] Pastor Araya, a member of the Full Gospel Church, had been arrested in July 2021 alongside fellow pastor, Rev. Samuel Okbamichael.[28]
In the twelve months preceding July 2024, 218 Christians were arrested in Eritrea, many of them women and children.[29]
In December 2024, Eritrean security forces raided a private home where 27 secondary school students, aged approximately 14 to 16, had gathered for prayer and worship. Such raids often occur after a neighbour reports the gathering to the police. The students, both male and female, were initially held at a local police station before being transferred to Mai Serwa prison, known for housing long-term detainees.[30]
Jehovah’s Witnesses are also frequently arrested and imprisoned, with 64 members reportedly still in detention in May 2025.[31] The arrests are often justified by their refusal to perform mandatory military service. They are also barred from holding government jobs, receiving government benefits or accessing bank accounts.[32] In September 2024, security officials broke into a peaceful gathering of Jehovah’s Witnesses in a private home and arrested 24 people. Two minors were later released, but days afterwards an 85-year-old was again detained. All the individuals were transferred to the Mai Serwa prison. On 7 December 2024, nine-months-pregnant Saron Ghebru was released, followed by the release of 82-year-old Mizan Gebreyesus on 15 January 2025.[33]
In November 2024, four Jehovah’s Witness students aged 16 to 18 were arrested and sent to Mai Serwa prison. Later that month, police detained Almaz Gebrehiwot; Almaz remains held at Asmara’s 5th Police Station. Two other women, Mikal Taddesse and Berekti Gebretatyos, were released from Mai Serwa and Adi Abeto prisons on 25 February and 12 March 2025, respectively.[34]
During the reporting period, the United Nations issued multiple statements condemning ongoing human rights violations by the Eritrean government, particularly infringements on freedom of religion, and called for their immediate reversal. In his May 2023 report, the UN Special Rapporteur on Eritrea, Mohamed Abdelsalam Babiker, documented the repression of religious freedom, highlighting targeted actions against leaders of legally recognised denominations. The government sought to silence Catholic religious leaders critical of human rights abuses, exemplified by the October 2022 arrest of three Catholic priests. Orthodox Christians also faced persecution, with at least 44 monks detained in April 2023, supporters of the late Patriarch Abune Antonios.
In June 2024, Babiker reported to the UN Human Rights Council that Eritrea’s human rights situation remains grave, characterised by arbitrary and incommunicado detention, enforced disappearances and indefinite national service tantamount to forced labour, often accompanied by torture and inhumane treatment. Repression of fundamental freedoms, including religious freedom, has intensified, with prominent religious leaders imprisoned for decades and extensive state interference in religious institutions. The report also underscored widespread denial of due process for detainees — many of whom are religious leaders, human rights defenders, or critics of the regime — and the complete closure of civic space. Babiker urged Eritrean authorities to end these abuses, implement accepted Universal Periodic Review recommendations and ensure accountability and redress for victims.[35]
The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) reported that as of May 2025, Eritrea continued to detain over 350 Christians, including more than 80 arrested in the first five months of the year. USCIRF also cited estimates of around 10,000 prisoners of conscience held in more than 300 detention facilities nationwide.[36] Release International updates corroborated these figures.[37]
The U.S. Department of State has designated Eritrea as a Country of Particular Concern for persistent violations of religious freedom since 2004.[38]
Prospects for freedom of religion
Eritrea remains an authoritarian state with virtually no political participation and systematic violations of fundamental rights, including civil liberties, freedom of expression and freedom of religion or belief. Hundreds of Eritreans continue to flee the country. In view of the above, the situation for religious freedom remains extremely severe, and the prospects for this fundamental right are deeply negative.
Sources
Eritrea