OSCE countries
Roger Kiska
The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) describes itself as the world’s largest regional security organisation.[1] Its 57 member countries are often divided into those “East of Vienna” and those “West of Vienna”. The OSCE includes Russia, the United States, Canada, Europe (EU, EEA, UK, and Switzerland), and all the countries of the former Soviet Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia.
Each Participating State of the OSCE has some form of constitutional protection for religious freedom; however, the manner in which religious freedom and human rights are respected in practice varies substantially.
Rise in antisemitism and anti-Muslim incidents
The OSCE region, especially “West of Vienna”, has seen a dramatic increase in antisemitic and anti-Muslim activity since the 7 October 2023 attack against Isreal and the resulting war. France saw a more than 1,000 percent increase in antisemitic incidents, with 1,676 taking place in 2023 alone.[2] The following year saw no less than 106 reported physical attacks, including the rape of a 12-year-old Jewish girl in Courbevoie.[3] In 2023, the number of anti-Muslim hate incidents in France rose by 29 percent to 242.[4]
In the United States, college campuses saw an eruption of anti-Israel protests and around-the-clock encampments across the country. They led to hundreds of students being arrested or suspended, university buildings being taken over, and university presidents resigning.[5] The targeting of Jewish students led to some feeling unsafe to attend classes or exams on campus and forced some universities to go online to continue lessons.[6]
The United Kingdom witnessed record numbers of antisemitic[7] and anti-Muslim[8] hate crimes in the wake of 7 October. Mosques and Islamic centres were attacked as part of a series of protests and riots in late July and early August 2024, sparked by false claims on social media that the stabbing of three girls at a dance class in Southport was carried out by an immigrant, who was later ascribed a Muslim-sounding name.[9]
A 2023 report in Germany recorded 4,369 crimes related to the Israel-Hamas conflict, a sharp rise from 61 in 2022.[10] The Federal Association of Departments for Research and Information on Antisemitism (RIAS) documented 4,782 cases of antisemitism, a rise of over 80 percent from the previous year.[11] The CLAIM network reported 1,926 anti-Muslim incidents in 2023, more than double the previous year’s figure of 898.[12]
Areas affected by armed conflict
The continuing war in Ukraine has led to religious freedom violations on both sides. In Russian-occupied Ukraine, the authorities have systematically repressed any religious denomination or member of the clergy it has suspected of being pro-Ukrainian. The Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU) and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church have been particularly affected, but so too have independent Muslim communities, Evangelicals and other religious minorities.[13] For its part, Ukraine has repressed religious and secular organisations it has suspected of having sympathies with Moscow. On 23 September 2024, the Law on the Protection of the Constitutional Order in the Sphere of Activity of Religious Organisations came into effect,[14] banning religious organisations with ties to Russia. While not directly mentioned, the primary target of the law was evidently the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOCMP), a self-governing Church over which the Russian Orthodox Church has continued to claim jurisdiction. As of May 2024, the UOCMP had 10,587 parishes in Ukraine, compared to the 8,075 parishes of the OCU.[15]
Since the end of 2024, Ukraine has seen a dramatic increase in the number of criminal proceedings against conscientious objectors to military service, with possible jail sentences of up to three years. As of late October 2024, around 300 conscientious objectors, 95 percent of them Jehovah’s Witnesses, were under criminal investigation.[16] A similar phenomenon with similar jail sentencing guidelines occurred in the Russian Federation, where no legal provision exists for alternative civilian service during a period of mobilisation.[17]
In 2023, the army of Azerbaijan initiated a major offensive and took total control of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region, leading to the ethnic cleansing of 120,000 Armenians.[18] The area had historically been inhabited by Armenian Christians and after its takeover the Azeri government carried out extensive destruction of ancient church buildings.[19]
Anti-Christian incidents
The OSCE region has also seen ongoing vandalism of churches. In Canada, according to a CBC News report,at least 33 churches were destroyed by fire between May 2021 and December 2023, and 24 incidents were confirmed as arson.[20]
Attacks on churches in Spain have also been frequent. On 8 March 2023, feminists plastered posters on the main entrance of the Church of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Sabadell and painted it purple in a Women’s Day protest.[21] Spain has also witnessed numerous attacks on clergy and laypeople. On 25 January 2023, a suspected jihadist murdered a sacristan and injured a priest and a Moroccan convert in Algeciras.[22] In Valencia a priest was killed and several others injured at their monastery by a man shouting, “I am Jesus Christ.”[23]
In Italy, 41 of 42 attacks on places of worship targeted church buildings.[24]
A monthly Rosary prayer by Catholic men in the main square of Zagreb and 12 other locations in Croatia suffered repeated attacks from left-wing activists after the pro-life convictions of the participants became known. Since the men began gathering for these non-political prayers in January 2023, they have become the target of aggressive demonstrations.[25]
According to authorities in Greece, in 2024, a total of 608 acts of vandalism, and arson were committed against religious places of worship, with Orthodox chapels and churches being most targeted. The highest number of incidents occurred in Athens-Piraeus.[26]
France recorded some 1,000 anti-Christian incidents in 2023, 90 percent of them being attacks on Christian religious properties.[27]
In the United States, attacks on churches doubled from 2022 to 2023,[28] some of them relating to protests connected to abortion following the Dobbs Supreme Court decision in 2022.[29] which eliminated federal permission for abortion and devolved its regulation to individual states.
Polite persecution
Polite persecution refers to non-violent but coercive forms of oppression manifested through government or bureaucratic practices, social norms and laws. Their effect is to marginalise Christians, preventing them from manifesting their religious beliefs in public life, including in their places of employment. It is becoming more common, for example, that public funds are available only if the recipient body does not hold beliefs which are viewed as discriminating against the LGBT community. In a municipality in southwest Norway, one such bylaw led to complaints from five different Christian groups who had been denied funding allegedly because of their doctrinal views.[30]
Harassment related to alleged hate speech also continues. In Finland Päivi Räsänen, a Christian parliamentarian and a former, Minister of the Interior, has been the subject of criminal prosecution since 2019 for expressing conservative Christian views about homosexuality in a pamphlet she helped to produce in 2004, and in relation to public comments she made in 2019 and 2020. Although she has been acquitted by both the lower criminal court and the appeal court, the government has appealed the case to the Supreme Court.[31]
In 2024 in Belgium, a court ruled that Archbishop Luc Terlinden and former Archbishop Jozef De Kesel discriminated against a woman by twice denying her access to diaconal formation because she was female and ordered them to pay a fine.[32] The ruling raises serious questions about the autonomy of the Church to govern its own doctrine.
There have, however, been positive developments, with some of the highest courts in the OSCE region pushing back against polite persecution in favour of religious freedom. In Higgs v Farmor’s School,[33] the highest appellate court in England and Wales ruled in favour of a pastoral administrator who was dismissed by her employer, a primary school, for making two Facebook posts which were critical of LGBT education for young children. The posts, which were steeped in Christian messaging, were speaking to an ongoing debate in England about education on sexual relationships and gender ideology being mandatory in primary schools.
The United States Supreme Court also issued two rulings pushing back against polite persecution. In Groff v DeJoy,[34] it clarified a longstanding debate about the extent to which employers must provide reasonable accommodations for those with relevant protected characteristics, including religion. The plaintiff, a postal worker, sued his employer for changing its policies and requiring him to work on Sundays. The Supreme Court ruled that failing to accommodate his deeply held Christian beliefs violated his First Amendment right to religious freedom, as the Post Office was unable to establish that his not working Sundays would lead to a substantial detriment to their business.
Central Asia and Islam
In the countries of this region—and perhaps most acutely in Turkmenistan—violations of religious freedom must be assessed within the framework of national security concerns, particularly in light of the perceived threat posed by Islamic extremism. Islam has been present in the region since the eighth century, shaped by a strong Sufi influence and consolidated under various Khanates, including those of Genghis Khan. This spiritual and cultural tradition largely survived the Soviet period intact. In sharp contrast, the emergence of Salafism—as promoted by groups such as the Islamic State—has become a growing concern over the past 25 years.
Against this backdrop, the measures adopted by governments in the region counter radicalisation require careful, case-by-case assessment, taking into account the proportionality of the response in relation to the credibility of the threat. Discerning the underlying intent behind restrictions on religious practice is key to distinguishing between legitimate security imperatives and unjustified repression. In April 2023, the regime in Azerbaijan arrested hundreds of Shi‘a Muslims purported to have ties to Iran.[35] The Muslim Unity Movement (Müsəlman Birliyi Hərəkatı, MBH), a Shi‘a group opposing state control over religious practices, also suffered continuous persecution including police detention, beatings and torture.[36] In January 2024, Azerbaijan withdrew from the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe after it signalled that it would refuse to ratify the Azerbaijani delegation's credentials for because of record of alleged human rights violations.[37]
In 2023, the US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), following an in-country visit, recommended that Kazakhstan be placed on a Special Watch List for its “severe” violations of religious freedom.[38] Sunni Muslims continue in detention despite a call made two years prior by the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention to release them.[39]
Kyrgyzstan continued to suppress expressions of Islamic faith that differed from the state-endorsed version of Islam. Between January and June 2023, the State Committee for National Security (SCNS) arrested at least 23 Hizb ut-Tahrir and 16 Yakyn Inkar members. These arrests were often justified by the possession of “extremist” materials.[40] In August 2023, the SCNS closed 39 mosques and 21 madrasas (Islamic schools) in the Osh region, citing non-compliance with laws on religious freedom, construction standards, hygiene, and fire safety.[41] In November 2023, a proposal to ban face coverings and large beards for “public safety reasons” was made in the Kyrgyz Parliament.[42]
In Tajikistan, a Sunni majority country, Muslims who simply opposed government policies were arbitrarily classified as extremist. Tajik officials kept up their surveillance and punishment of religious practices using the “traditions law” which prohibits religious rituals considered excessive.[43] Several mosques were destroyed or closed in 2023 for banal reasons.[44]
In Turkmenistan, the regime of the Berdimuhamedow family has dealt aggressively with “non-traditional” and conservative Muslim practices. Muslims who deviate from the state-sanctioned interpretation of Islam have experienced persecution, including long prison sentences.[45] In August 2023, Forum 18 reported that police in Türkmenbaşy conducted raids on the homes of devout Muslims, seizing religious literature.[46] In April 2024, security services intensified surveillance of young people visiting mosques, detaining and questioning young men praying there, particularly after the Crocus City Hall terrorist attack near Moscow.[47] Shops selling religious clothing and items were also raided.[48]Uzbekistan exhibits traits common to other post-Soviet Central Asian republics. In June 2024, about 100 Muslim men were arrested in the southern Qashqadaryo Region as part of a nationwide campaign targeting individuals sharing and discussing their faith.[49] In September 2023, Uzbek authorities shut down at least 10 halal restaurants in Tashkent for not selling alcohol.[50] In February 2024, Tashkent’s police detained at least 10 men with long beards and brought them to a police station, where they were compelled to shave their beards under the threat of imprisonment.[51]
[1] Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe_, Who We Are_, https://www.osce.org/who-we-are (accessed 14th April 2025).
[2] “Les chiffres de l’antisémitisme en France”, SPCJ -Service de Protection de la Communauté Juive- https://www.spcj.org/antisémitisme/chiffres-antisémitisme-france-2023-b (accessed 11 February 2025).
[3] Les chiffres de l’antisémitisme en France en 2024, Service de Protection de la Communauté Juive, https://www.spcj.org/antis%C3%A9mitisme/chiffres-de-l-antis%C3%A9mitisme-2024 (accessed 21 March 2025).
[4] Rapport 2023 de la Commission Consultative des Droits de l’Homme sur la Lutte contre le racisme, l’antisémitisme et la xénophobie, CNCDH, https://www.cncdh.fr/sites/default/files/2024-06/CNCDH_Les_Essentiels_Rapport_Racisme_2023_0.pdf (accessed le 11 February 2025). ”Les incendies criminels d’églises en hausse de 30% l’année dernière”, Info Europe 1, William Molinié, Info Europe 1, https://www.europe1.fr/societe/info-europe-1-les-incendies-criminels-deglises-en-hausse-de-30-lannee-derniere-278087 (accessed 11 April 2025).
[5] Nadine El Bawab, “How pro-Palestinian protests unfolded on college campuses across the US: A timeline,” ABC News, 4th May 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/US/pro-palestinian-protests-unfolded-college-campuses-us-timeline/story?id=109902300 (accessed 14th April 2025).
[6] Anemona Hartocollis, “Jewish Students Describe Facing Antisemitism on Campus to Members of Congress,” New York Times, 1st March 2024 https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/01/us/antisemitism-campus-jewish-students.html# (accessed 14th April 2025).
[7] CST, Antisemitic Incidents 2023, p. 4 https://cst.org.uk/public/data/file/9/f/Antisemitic_Incidents_Report_2023.pdf (accessed 14 thOctober 2024).
[8] “Tell MAMA recorded almost 5,000 anti-Muslim cases a year on from 7 October”,TellMAMA, 7 th October 2024, https://tellmamauk.org/tell-mama-recorded-almost-5000-anti-muslim-
cases-a-year-on-from-7-october/ (accessed 27 th November 2024).
[9] Andy Gregory, “How lies and disinformation about Southport knife attack suspect led to riots”,Independent, 31 st July 2024 https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/southport-attack-riots-far-right-social-media-b2588628.html (accessed 6 th November 2024).
[10] “Bundesweite Fallzahlen 2023 - Politisch motivierte Kriminalität”, BMI, BKA, (2024) p. 11,https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/DE/veroeffentlichungen/nachrichten/2024/pmk2023-factsheets.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3 (accessed 10th February 2025).
[11] RIAS, Annual Report on Antisemitic Incidents in Germany, 25 June 2024, https://report-antisemitism.de/documents/2024-06-25_rias-bund_press_release_annual_23.pdf (accessed 14th April 2025).
[12] Marsh, S., “Anti-Muslim incidents double in Germany but overlooked by authorities, NGO says”, Reuters, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/anti-muslim-incidents-double-germany-overlooked-by-authorities-ngo-says-2024-06-24/ (accessed 10th February 2025).
[13] Martin Fornusek, “Faith under fire: Russia’s war on religion in Ukraine’s occupied territories,”,Kyiv Independent, 4 th April 2024, https://kyivindependent.com/faith-under-fire-russias-war-on-
religion-in-ukraines-occupied-territories/ (accessed 16 th January 2025).
[14] “Про захист конституційного ладу у сфері діяльності релігійних організацій (On the Protection of the Constitutional Order in the Sphere of Activity of Religious Organisations),”
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 20 th August 2024, https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3894-20#Text(accessed 13 th February 2025).
[15] Konstantin Skorin, “Ukraine’s Ban on Moscow-linked Church will have Far-Reaching Consequences,” 04 September 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2024/08/zapret-upc-v-ukraine?lang=en (accessed 14 April 2025).
[16] Willy Fautré, “Thousands of conscientious objectors under threat of 3-year prison terms,”, Human Rights Without Frontiers, 2 nd December 2024, https://hrwf.eu/wp-
content/uploads/2024/12/Ukraine-2024.pdf (accessed 16 th February 2025).
[17] Victoria Arnold, “No legal provision for alternative civilian service during mobilisation”, Forum 18 News Service, 19 th December 2022, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2797(accessed 14 th March 2025).
[18] Azerbaijani Regime Ethnically Cleansed Nagorno-Karabakh According to International Fact-Finding Mission, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/article/new-report-azerbaijani-regime-ethnically-
cleansed-nagorno-karabakh-according-international (accessed 1 st March 2025).
[19] AZERBAIJAN – USCIRF ANNUAL REPORT 2024 – RECOMMENDED FOR COUNTRIES OF PARTICULAR
CONCERN (CPC), US Commission on International Religious Freedom, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Azerbaijan.pdf (accessed 1 st March 2025).
[20] CBC News, “Why dozens of churches in Canada have been torched and burned,” April 2024, https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/video/1.7079243 (accessed 15th April 2025).
[21] «Feministas atacan la iglesia del Inmaculado Corazón de María en Sabadell », en Dolça Catalunya, 9 de marzo de 2023, https://www.dolcacatalunya.com/2023/03/feministas-atacan-la-iglesia-del-inmaculado-corazon-de-maria-en-sabadell/ (accessed 14 April 2025).
[22] «Las víctimas del ataque yihadista de Algeciras describen ante el juez las agresiones», en la Voz de Cádiz, Campo de Gibraltar, 24 de marzo de 2023. https://www.lavozdigital.es/provincia/campo-gibraltar/victimas-ataque-yihadista-algeciras-describen-ante-juez-20230324114925-ntv.html (accessed 14 April 2025).
[23] «La Policía detiene al agresor de los frailes del monasterio de Gilet », en Las Provincias, 10 de noviembre de 2024. https://www.lasprovincias.es/valencia/guardia-civil-
detiene-hombre-agresiones-frailes-monasterio-20241110091547-nt.html?ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lasprovincias.es%2Fvalencia%2Fguardia-civil-detiene-hombre-agresiones-frailes-monasterio-20241110091547-nt.html (accessed 14th April 2025).
[24] Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), “Hate Crime Reporting: Italy 2023,” OSCE, 2023, https://hatecrime.osce.org/reporting/italy/2023 (accessed 27th February 2025).
[25] “Public prayer gathering attacked in Zagreb,” Observatory on Intolerance and Discrimination against Christians (OIDAC), https://www.intoleranceagainstchristians.eu/index.php?id=12&case=8671 (accessed 15th April 2025).
[26] “Ministry Report: 608 Incidents of Violence, Vandalism at Religious Sites in Greece in 2004,” Tovima.com, 3rd January 2025, https://www.tovima.com/society/ministry-report-608-incidents-of-violence-vandalism-at-religious-sites-in-greece-in- 2024#:~:text=A%20total%20of%20608%20acts%20of%20violence%2C,%E2%80%93%20directed (accessed 10th January 2025).
[27] ”Près de 1 000 actes anti-chrétiens enregistrés en 2023, selon le ministère de l’Intérieur”, Grégoire Gindre, RCF, 26 March 2024, https://www.rcf.fr/articles/actualite/pres-de-1-000-actes-antichretiens-
enregistres-en-2023-selon-le-ministere-de (accessed 15 April 2025).
[28] Arielle Del Turco, “Hostility Against Churches Is on the Rise in the United States: Analyzing Incidents from 2018-2023,” Family Research Council, February 2024,
https://downloads.frc.org/EF/EF24B78.pdf (accessed 3rd February 2025).
[29] “Backgrounder: Attacks on Catholic Churches in the U.S.,” The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, https://www.usccb.org/committees/religious-liberty/Backgrounder-Attacks-on-
Catholic-Churches-in-US#tab--_023 (accessed 3rd February 2025).
[30] “Norwegian city under fire for refusing grants to Christian institutions,” CNE News, 11 April 2023, https://cne.news/article/2888-norwegian-city-under-fire-for-refusing-grants-to-christian-institutions (accessed 20 November 2024).
[31] Observatory on Intolerance and Discrimination against Christians in Europe, “Update: Prosecutor will take Päivi Räsänen case to Supreme Court,” 12th January 2024, https://www.intoleranceagainstchristians.eu/index.php?id=12&case=7234 (accessed 19th May 2025).
[32] Aartsbisschoppen schuldig aan discrimineren vrouw die opleiding tot diaken wil volgen", De Morgen, 25th June 2024, https://www.demorgen.be/snelnieuws/aartsbisschoppen-schuldig-aan-discrimineren-vrouw-die-opleiding-tot-diaken-wil-volgen~b3defc26a/ (accessed 7th January 2025).
[33] Higgs v Farmor's School [2025] EWCA Civ 109 (12 February 2025), https://www.bailii.org/cgi-bin/format.cgi?doc=/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2025/109.html&query=(higgs)+AND+(v)+AND+(farmor%27s)+AND+(school) (accessed 27th June 2025).
[34] Groff v DeJoy, 600 US 447 (2023), https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/22-174_k536.pdf (accessed 27th June 2025).
[35] Mass arrests of religious Shias reported in Azerbaijan, eurasianet, https://eurasianet.org/mass-arrests-of-religious-shias-reported-in-azerbaijan (accessed 15th April 2025).
[36] Müsəlman Birliyi Hərəkatının daha bir üzvü saxlanılıb (Another member of the Muslim Unity Movement detained), Amerikanın Səsi, https://www.amerikaninsesi.org/a/7044003.html (accessed 1 st
March 2025).
[37] ‘Facing expulsion, Azerbaijan quits European parliamentary body,’ Eurasianet, 25th January 2024, available at: https://eurasianet.org/facing-expulsion-azerbaijan-quits-european-parliamentary-body (accessed 26th August 2025).
[38] KAZAKHSTAN – USCIRF ANNUAL REPORT 2024 – RECOMMENDED FOR SPECIAL WATCH LIST, US Commission on International Religious Freedom, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Kazakhstan%202024.pdf (15th April 2025).
[39] “KAZAKHSTAN: Still jailed despite 2021 UN "immediate" release call,” Forum 18, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2861 (17th December 2024).
[40] KYRGYZSTAN – USCIRF ANNUAL REPORT 2024 – RECOMMENDED FOR SPECIAL WATCH LIST, US Commission on International Religious Freedom, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/USCIRF%202024%20Annual%20Report.pdf (accessed 18th December 2024).
[41] УКМК Ош облусундагы 60тан ашуун мечит, медресенин ишин токтотту (The State Committee for National Security has suspended the work of more than 60 mosques and madrasas in Osh region),
Азаттык үналгысы, https://www.azattyk.org/a/32538861.html (accessed 18th December 2024).
[42] “Диний фанатизм”: Паранжы менен сакалга Борбор Азияда эмнеге каршы болууда? (“Religious fanaticism”: Why is there opposition to the burqa and beard in Central Asia?), BBC News, https://www.bbc.com/kyrgyz/articles/c6pdq89djz5o (accessed 18th December 2024).
[43] TAJIKISTAN – USCIRF ANNUAL REPORT 2024 – RECOMMENDED FOR COUNTRIES OF PARTICULAR CONCERN (CPC), US Commission on International Religious Freedom, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Tajikistan.pdf (accessed 5 th January 2025).
[44] Ibid.
[45] Freedom in the World 2024: Turkmenistan, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/country/turkmenistan/freedom-world/2024 (accessed 5 th February 2025).
[46] Raids, literature seizures, imam detained, Forum 18, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2858 (accessed 8 th February 2025).
[47] Lebapda, Moskwa hüjüminden soň, howpsuzlyk güýçlendirildi (Security tightened in Lebap after Moscow attack), Azat Ýewropa/Azatlyk Radiosy, https://www.azathabar.com/a/lebabyn-hakimiyetleri-moskwa-hujuminden-son-howpsuzlygy-guyclendirdi/32879522.html (accessed 12 th February 2025).
[48] Orsýetdäki pajygaly hüjümden soň türkmen polisiýasy dinçileri gysýar (Turkmen police crackdown on religious figures after tragic attack in Russia), Azat Ýewropa/Azatlyk Radiosy, https://www.azathabar.com/a/orsyetdaki-pajygaly-hujumden-son-turkmen-polisiyasy-dincileri-gysyar/32876308.html (accessed 12 th February 2025).
[49] Former prisoner of conscience rearrested, another given 10 more years jail, Forum 18, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2933 (accessed 10 th March 2025).
[50] Uzbekistan’s recent anti-religious measures present a worrisome trend for its Muslims, Global Voices, https://globalvoices.org/2024/02/29/uzbekistans-recent-anti-religious-measures-present-a-worrisome-trend-for-its-muslims/ (accessed 10th March 2025).
[51] «Либо сбреете бороду, либо сядете на 15 суток». В Ташкенте снова начались рейды против ношения бород (“Either you shave your beard or you go to jail for 15 days.” Raids against wearing beards have begun again in Tashkent), Радио Озодлик, https://rus.ozodlik.org/a/32812887.html(accessed 10th March 2025).
